From the surface to the inner core, Earth has several layers that continue to be a mystery to science. Now, it turns out one of these layers may consist of material from an entirely different planet!
Deep within our planet lies a mysterious, patchy layer known as the D” layer. Located a staggering 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles) below the surface, this zone sits just above the boundary separating Earth’s molten outer core from its solid mantle. Unlike a perfect sphere, the D” layer’s thickness varies drastically around the globe, with some regions completely lacking this layer altogether – much like how continents poke through the oceans on Earth’s surface.
These striking variations have long puzzled geophysicists, who describe the D” layer as heterogeneous, meaning non-uniform in its composition. However, a new study might finally shed light on this deep enigma, proposing that the D” layer could be a remnant of another planet that collided with Earth during its early days, billions of years ago.
The findings, in a nutshell
The research, published in National Science Review and led by Dr. Qingyang Hu from the Center for High Pressure Science and Technology Advanced Research and Dr. Jie Deng from Princeton University, draws upon the widely accepted Giant Impact hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that a Mars-sized object violently collided with the proto-Earth, creating a global ocean of molten rock, or magma, in the aftermath.
Hu and Deng believe the D” layer’s unique composition may be the leftover fallout from this colossal impact, potentially holding valuable clues about our planet’s formation. A key aspect of their theory involves the presence of substantial water within this ancient magma ocean. While the origin of this water remains up for debate, the researchers are focusing on what happened as the molten rock began to cool.
“The prevailing view,” Dr. Deng explains in a media release, “suggests that water would have concentrated towards the bottom of the magma ocean as it cooled. By the final stages, the magma closest to the core could have contained water volumes comparable to Earth’s present-day oceans.”
Is there a hidden ocean inside the Earth?
This water-rich environment at the bottom of the magma ocean would have created extreme pressure and temperature conditions, fostering unique chemical reactions between water and minerals.
“Our research suggests this hydrous magma ocean favored the formation of an iron-rich phase called iron-magnesium peroxide,” Dr. Hu elaborates.
This peroxide, which has a chemical formula of (Fe,Mg)O2, has an even stronger affinity for iron compared to other major components expected in the lower mantle.
“According to our calculation, its affinity to iron could have led to the accumulation of iron-dominant peroxide in layers ranging from several to tens of kilometers thick,” Hu explains.
The presence of such an iron-rich peroxide phase would alter the mineral composition of the D” layer, deviating from our current understanding. According to the new model proposed by Hu and Deng, minerals in the D” layer would be dominated by an assemblage of iron-poor silicate, iron-rich (Fe,Mg) peroxide, and iron-poor (Fe,Mg) oxide. Interestingly, this iron-dominant peroxide also possesses unique properties that could explain some of the D” layer’s puzzling geophysical features, such as ultra-low velocity zones and layers of high electrical conductance — both of which contribute to the D” layer’s well-known compositional heterogeneity.
NEW YORK — The average American spends nearly two and a half hours a day “dreamscrolling” — looking at dream purchases or things they’d like to one day own. While some might think you’re just wasting your day, a whopping 71% say it’s time well spent, as the habit motivates them to reach their financial goals.
In a recent poll of 2,000 U.S. adults, more than two in five respondents say they spend more time dreamscrolling when the economy is uncertain (43%). Over a full year, that amounts to about 873 hours or nearly 36 days spent scrolling.
Conducted by OnePoll on behalf of financial services company Empower, the survey reveals half of the respondents say they dreamscroll while at work. Of those daydreaming employees, one in five admit to spending between three and four hours a day multitasking while at their job.
Gen Zers spend the most time dreamscrolling at just over three hours per day, while boomers spend the least, clocking in around an hour of fantasy purchases and filling wish lists. Americans say looking at dream purchases makes it easier for them to be smart with their money (56%), avoid making unplanned purchases or going into debt (30%), and better plan to achieve their financial goals (25%).
Nearly seven in 10 see dreamscrolling as an investment in themselves (69%) and an outlet for them to envision what they want out of life (67%). Four in 10 respondents (42%) say they regularly spend time picturing their ideal retirement — including their retirement age, location, and monthly expenses.
Many respondents are now taking the American dream online, with one in five respondents scrolling through listings of dream homes or apartments. Meanwhile, some are just browsing through vacation destinations (25%), beauty or self-care products (23%), and items for their pets (19%). Many others spend time looking at clothing, shoes, and accessories (49%), gadgets and technology (30%), and home décor or furniture (29%).
More than half (56%) currently have things left open in tabs and windows or saved in shopping carts that they’d like to purchase or own in the future. For those respondents, they estimate it would cost about $86,593.40 to afford everything they currently have saved.
Almost half of Americans say they are spending more time dreamscrolling now than in previous years (45%), and 56% plan on buying something on their dream list before this year wraps. While 65% are optimistic they’ll be able to one day buy everything on their list, nearly one in four say they don’t think they’ll ever be able to afford the majority of items (23%).
More than half (51%) say owning their dream purchases would make them feel more financially secure, and close to half say working with a financial professional would help them reach their goals (47%). Others feel they have more work to do: 34% say they’ve purchased fewer things on their dream list than they should at their age, with millennials feeling the most behind (39%).
Rising prices (54%), the inability to save money (29%), and growing debt (21%) are the top economic factors that may be holding some Americans back. Instead of doom spending, dreamscrolling has had a positive impact on Americans’ money habits: respondents say they better understand their financial goals (24%) as a result.
Visiting looking at the Mona Lisa (Credit: pixabay.com)
In the pantheon of Renaissance art, Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa stands as an unrivalled icon. This half-length portrait is more than just an artistic masterpiece; it embodies the allure of an era marked by unparalleled cultural flourishing.
Yet, beneath the surface of the Mona Lisa’s elusive smile lies a debate that touches the very essence of the Renaissance, its politics and the role of women in history.
A mystery woman
The intrigue of the Mona Lisa, also known as La Gioconda, isn’t solely due to Leonardo’s revolutionary painting techniques. It’s also because the identity of the subject is unconfirmed to this day. More than half a century since it was first painted, the real identity of the Mona Lisa remains one of art’s greatest mysteries, intriguing scholars and enthusiasts alike.
A Mona Lisa painting from the workshop of Leonardo da Vinci, held in the collection of the Museo del Prado in Madrid, Spain. Collection of the Museo del Prado
The painting has traditionally been associated with Lisa Gherardini, the wife of Florentine silk merchant Francesco del Giocondo. But another compelling theory suggests a different sitter: Isabella of Aragon.
Isabella of Aragon was born into the illustrious House of Aragon in Naples, in 1470. She was a princess who was deeply entwined in the political and cultural fabric of the Renaissance.
Her 1490 marriage to Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan, positioned Isabella at the heart of Italian politics. And this role was both complicated and elevated by the ambitions and machinations of Ludovico Sforza (also called Ludovico il Moro), her husband’s uncle and usurper of the Milanese dukedom.
In The Virgin and Child with Four Saints and Twelve Devotees, by (unknown) Master of the Pala Sforzesca, circa 1490, Gian Galeazzo Sforza is shown in prayer facing his wife, Isabella of Aragon (identified by her heraldic red and gold). National Gallery
Scholarly perspectives
The theory that Isabella is the real Mona Lisa is supported by a combination of stylistic analyses, historical connections and reinterpretations of Leonardo’s intent as an artist.
In his biography of Leonardo, author Robert Payne points to preliminary studies by the artist that bear a striking resemblances to Isabella around age 20. Payne suggests Leonardo captured Isabella across different life stages, including during widowhood, as depicted in the Mona Lisa.
U.S. artist Lillian F. Schwartz’s 1988 study used x-rays to reveal an initial sketch of a woman hidden beneath Leonardo’s painting. This sketch was then painted over with Leonardo’s own likeness.
Schwartz believes the woman in the sketch is Isabella, because of its similarity with a cartoon Leonardo made of the princess. She proposes the work was made by integrating specific features of the initial model with Leonardo’s own features.
An illustration of Isabella of Aragon from the Story of Cremona by Antonio Campi. Library of Congress
This hypothesis is further supported by art historians Jerzy Kulski and Maike Vogt-Luerssen.
According to Vogt-Luerssen’s detailed analysis of the Mona Lisa, the symbols of the Sforza house and the depiction of mourning garb both align with Isabella’s known life circumstances. They suggest the Mona Lisa isn’t a commissioned portrait, but a nuanced representation of a woman’s journey through triumph and tragedy.
Similarly, Kulski highlights the portrait’s heraldic designs, which would be atypical for a silk merchant’s wife. He, too, suggests the painting shows Isabella mourning her late husband.
The Mona Lisa’s enigmatic expression also captures Isabella’s self-described state post-1500 of being “alone in misfortune.” Contrary to representing a wealthy, recently married woman, the portrait exudes the aura of a virtuous widow.
Late professor of art history Joanna Woods-Marsden suggested the Mona Lisa transcends traditional portraiture and embodies Leonardo’s ideal, rather than being a straightforward commission.
This perspective frames the work as a deeply personal project for Leonardo, possibly signifying a special connection between him and Isabella. Leonardo’s reluctance to part with the work also indicates a deeper, personal investment in it.
Beyond the canvas
The theory that Isabella of Aragon could be the true Mona Lisa is a profound reevaluation of the painting’s context, opening up new avenues through which to appreciate the work.
It elevates Isabella from a figure overshadowed by the men in her life, to a woman of courage and complexity who deserves recognition in her own right.
The Earth beneath our feet may feel solid, stable, and seemingly eternal. But the continents we call home are unique among our planetary neighbors, and their formation has long been a mystery to scientists. Now, researchers believe they may have uncovered a crucial piece of the puzzle: the role of ancient weathering in shaping Earth’s “cratons,” the most indestructible parts of our planet’s crust.
Cratons are the old souls of the continents, forming roughly half of Earth’s continental crust. Some date back over three billion years and have remained largely unchanged ever since. They form the stable hearts around which the rest of the continents have grown. For decades, geologists have wondered what makes these regions so resilient, even as the plates shift and collide around them.
It turns out that the key may lie not in the depths of the Earth but on its surface. A new study out of Penn State and published in Nature suggests that subaerial weathering – the breakdown of rocks exposed to air – may have triggered a chain of events that led to the stabilization of cratons billions of years ago, during the Neoarchaean era, around 2.5 to 3 billion years ago.
These ancient metamorphic rocks called gneisses, found on the Arctic Coast, represent the roots of the continents now exposed at the surface. The scientists said sedimentary rocks interlayered in these types of rocks would provide a heat engine for stabilizing the continents. Credit: Jesse Reimink. All Rights Reserved.
To understand how this happened, let’s take a step way back in time. In the Neoarchaean, Earth was a very different place. The atmosphere contained little oxygen, and the continents were mostly submerged beneath a global ocean. But gradually, land began to poke above the waves – a process called continental emergence.
As more rock was exposed to air, weathering rates increased dramatically. When rocks weather, they release their constituent minerals, including radioactive elements like uranium, thorium, and potassium. These heat-producing elements, or HPEs, are crucial because their decay generates heat inside the Earth over billions of years.
The researchers propose that as the HPEs were liberated by weathering, they were washed into sediments that accumulated in the oceans. Over time, plate tectonic processes would have carried these sediments deep into the crust, where the concentrated HPEs could really make their presence felt.
Buried at depth and heated from within, the sediments would have started to melt. This would have driven what geologists call “crustal differentiation” – the separation of the continental crust into a lighter, HPE-rich upper layer and a denser, HPE-poor lower layer. It’s this layering, the researchers argue, that gave cratons their extraordinary stability.
The upper crust, enriched in HPEs, essentially acted as a thermal blanket, keeping the lower crust and the mantle below relatively cool and strong. This prevented the kind of large-scale deformation and recycling that affected younger parts of the continents.
Interestingly, the timing of craton stabilization around the globe supports this idea. The researchers point out that in many cratons, the appearance of HPE-enriched sedimentary rocks precedes the formation of distinctive Neoarchaean granites – the kinds of rocks that would form from the melting of HPE-rich sediments.
The rocks on the left are old rocks that have been deformed and altered many times. They are juxtaposed next to an Archean granite on the right side. The granite is the result of melting that led to the stabilization of the continental crust. Credit: Matt Scott. All Rights Reserved.
Furthermore, metamorphic rocks – rocks transformed by heat and pressure deep in the crust – also record a history consistent with the model. Many cratons contain granulite terranes, regions of the deep crust uplifted to the surface that formed in the Neoarchaean. These granulites often have compositions that suggest they formed from the melting of sedimentary rocks.
So, the sequence of events – the emergence of continents, increased weathering, burial of HPE-rich sediments, deep crustal melting, and finally, craton stabilization – all seem to line up.
Move over Usain Bolt, because in the animal kingdom, speed takes on a whole new meaning! Forget sprinting at a measly 28 mph – these record-breaking creatures can leave you in the dust (or water, or sky) with their mind-blowing velocity. From lightning-fast cheetahs hunting down prey on the African savanna to majestic peregrine falcons diving from incredible heights, these animals rely on their extreme speed to survive and thrive in the wild. So, buckle up as we explore the top seven fastest animals on Earth.
The animal kingdom is brimming with speedsters across different habitats. We’re talking about fish that can zoom by speedboats, birds that plummet from the sky at breakneck speeds, and even insects with lightning-fast reflexes. Below is our list of the consensus top seven fastest animals in the world. We want to hear from you too! Have you ever encountered an animal with incredible speed? Share your stories in the comments below, and let’s celebrate the awe-inspiring power of nature’s speed demons!
The List: Fastest Animals in the World, Per Wildlife Experts
1. Peregrine Falcon – 242 MPH
Peregrine Falcon (Photo by Vincent van Zalinge on Unsplash)
The peregrine falcon takes the title of the fastest animal in the world, able to achieve speeds of 242 miles per hour. These birds don’t break the sound barrier by flapping their wings like crazy. Instead, they use gravity as their accomplice, raves The Wild Life. In a blink of an eye, the falcon can plummet towards its prey, like a fighter jet in a vertical dive. These dives can exceed 200 miles per hour, which is the equivalent of a human running at over 380 mph! That’s fast enough to make even the speediest sports car look like a snail.
That prominent bulge of this falcon’s chest cavity isn’t just for show – it’s a keel bone, and it acts like a supercharged engine for their flight muscles. A bigger keel bone translates to more powerful wing strokes, propelling the falcon forward with incredible force, explains A-Z Animals. These birds also boast incredibly stiff, tightly packed feathers that act like a high-performance suit, reducing drag to an absolute minimum. And the cherry on top? Their lungs and air sacs are designed for one-way airflow, meaning they’re constantly topped up with fresh oxygen, even when exhaling. This ensures they have the fuel they need to maintain their breakneck dives.
These fast falcons might be the ultimate jet setters of the bird world, but they’re not picky about their digs. The sky-dwelling predators are comfortable calling a variety of landscapes home, as long as there’s open space for hunting, writes One Kind Planet. They can be found soaring over marshes, estuaries, and even skyscrapers, always on the lookout for unsuspecting prey.
2. Golden Eagle – 200 MPH
Golden Eagle (Photo by Mark van Jaarsveld on Unsplash)
The golden eagle is a large bird that is well known for its powerful and fast flight. These majestic birds can reach speeds of up to 199 mph during a hunting dive, says List 25. Just like the peregrine falcon, the golden eagle uses a hunting technique called a stoop. With a powerful tuck of its wings, the eagle plummets towards its target in a breathtaking dive.
They are undeniably impressive birds, with a wingspan that can stretch up to eight feet wide! Imagine an athlete being able to run at 179 miles per hour! That’s what a golden eagle achieves in a dive, reaching speeds of up to 87 body lengths per second, mentions The Wild Life. The air rushes past its feathers, creating a whistling sound as it picks up, hurtling toward its prey.
They also use these impressive dives during courtship rituals and even playful moments, states Live Science. Picture two golden eagles soaring in tandem, one diving after the other in a dazzling aerial ballet. It’s a display of both power and grace that reaffirms their status as the ultimate rulers of the skies. Their habitat range stretches across the northern hemisphere, including North America, Europe, Africa, and Asia, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). So next time you see a golden eagle circling above, remember – it’s more than just a bird, it’s a living embodiment of speed, skill, and breathtaking beauty.
3. Black Marlin – 80 MPH
A Black Marlin jumping out of the water (Photo by Finpat on Shutterstock)
The ocean is a vast and mysterious realm, teeming with incredible creatures. And when it comes to raw speed, the black marlin is a high-performance athlete of the sea. They have a deep, muscular body built for cutting through water with minimal resistance, informs Crosstalk. Think of a sleek racing yacht compared to a clunky rowboat. Plus, their dorsal fin is lower and rounder, acting like a spoiler on a race car, reducing drag and allowing for a smoother ride through the water. Their “spears,” those sharp protrusions on their snouts, are thicker and more robust than other marlins. These aren’t just for show – they’re used to slash and stun prey during a hunt.
Some scientists estimate their burst speed at a respectable 22 mph. That’s impressive, but here’s where the debate gets interesting. Some reports claim black marlin can pull fishing line at a staggering 120 feet per second! When you do the math, that translates to a whopping 82 mph, according to Story Teller. This magnificent fish calls shallow, warm shores home, their ideal habitat boasts water temperatures between 59 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit. – basically, a permanent summer vacation!
The secret behind its impressive swimming prowess lies in its tail. Unlike the rounded tails of many fish, black marlin possess crescent-shaped tails, explains A-Z Animals. With a powerful flick, they can propel themselves forward with incredible bursts of speed. This marlin also boasts a long, thin, and sharp bill that cuts through water, offering minimal resistance as it surges forward. But that’s not all. Black marlin also have rigid pectoral fins that act like perfectly sculpted wings. These fins aren’t for flapping – they provide stability and lift, allowing the marlin to maintain a streamlined position in the water.
4. Cheetah – 70 MPH
Adult and cheetah pup on green grass during daytime (Photo by Sammy Wong on Unsplash)
The cheetah is Africa’s most endangered large cat and also the world’s fastest land animal. Their bodies are built for pure velocity, with special adaptations that allow them to go from zero to sixty in a mind-blowing three seconds, shares Animals Around The Globe. Each stride stretches an incredible seven meters, eating up the ground with astonishing speed. But they can only maintain their high speeds for short bursts.
Unlike its stockier lion and tiger cousins, the cheetah boasts a lean, streamlined physique that makes them aerodynamic. But the real innovation lies in the cheetah’s spine. It’s not just a rigid bone structure – it’s a flexible marvel, raves A-Z Animals. With each powerful push, this springy spine allows the cheetah to extend its strides to incredible lengths, propelling it forward with tremendous force. And finally, we come to the engine room: the cheetah’s muscles. Packed with a high concentration of “fast-twitch fibers,” these muscles are specifically designed for explosive bursts of speed. Think of them as tiny, built-in turbochargers that give the cheetah that extra surge of power when it needs it most.
These magnificent cats haven’t always been confined to the dry, open grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa. Cheetahs were once widespread across both Africa and Asia, but their range has shrunk dramatically due to habitat loss and dwindling prey populations, says One Kind Planet. Today, most cheetahs call protected natural reserves and parks home.
